Household debt: statistics and impact on economy

Household debt is money borrowed by individuals, usually from banks or financial institutions. This includes mortgages, personal loans, student loans and credit card balances.

Trends in household debt

Total household debt in the UK rose sharply from the late 1990s up until the financial crisis began in 2008. Debt as a proportion of household income rose from 85% in 1996 to 156% at its peak in 2008.

During the 2008/09 recession, banks were much more reluctant to lend money and consumers were less inclined to take on credit. As a result, the household debt-to-income ratio fell to 128% by late 2015. Starting in early 2016, growth in household debt levels accelerated, leading to the debt-to-income ratio to increase from 132% in Q4 2015 to 136% in Q4 2017, before falling to 132% in late 2019.

During the covid-19 pandemic, total household debt and the debt-to-income ratio rose slowly, driven by rising mortgage debt but tempered by consumers repaying unsecured debt. From Q2 2022, the debt-to-income ratio started falling and reached 118% in Q4 2024, partly due to higher interest rates.

Source: ONS, National accounts series CVZI

The rising cost of living

People are using savings and debt to pay for essentials because of the rising cost of living. Debt advice charities like Stepchange and Citizens Advice both saw the number of debt clients reach a record level in January 2025. An Office for National Statistics survey shows that of the 72% of adults who saw an increase in their cost of living in April 2025 compared to the month before, 14% reported using more credit than usual as a result.

Who holds debt?

Around 84% of UK adults had some form of credit or loan in the 12 months to May 2024. Excluding debt which is not regulated by the FCA (like student loans, loans from friends and family and buy now pay later) and excluding transactors (adults who hold credit cards but pay the full statement balance every month), 48% of UK adults held some form of credit or loan in May 2024.

Those aged 35-54 are most likely to hold consumer credit, with 60% of 35–44-year-olds and 58% of 45 to 54 year olds doing so, compared with 22% of those aged 75 and over.

High income households are most likely to hold debt, particularly property debt, because taking out large loans like mortgages requires a high income and savings. However, low income households are more likely to be overindebted.

Interest rates

The interest rate set by the Bank of England is an important factor in determining borrowing costs. The Bank of England regularly increased interest rates from December 2021 to August 2023 in response to high inflation. The interest rate was increased to 5.25% in August 2023. It was then cut in August and November 2024 and in February and May 2025, to 4.25%.

Household debt and the economy

Household debt can boost economic growth in the short run, as households who borrow can spend more. However, in the medium term, high debt in the economy can make a recession deeper and longer. Households with high debt levels cut back on their spending by more than other households during and after a recession, and are more likely to default on their debt, resulting in losses for lenders.

The Bank of England’s Financial Policy Committee has said that in their view the rising cost of living does not pose the same risks to lenders and the financial system as other shocks, because lenders are well capitalised, have limited direct exposures to Russia and Ukraine, and are resilient to risks from sectors with high commodity prices.